Chupacabra Science: How Evolution Made a Mythical Monster

Tales of a mysterious monster that sucks the blood of livestock have exploded inMexico, theU.S.Southwest, and evenChinasince the mid-1990s, when thechupacabra,orchupacabras,was first reported inPuerto Rico (map).

Now, just in time forHalloween, scientists say they can explain the stories with the help of evolutionary theory.

Flesh-and-blood chupacabras have allegedly been foundas recently as June—making the monsters eminently more accessible for study than, say, theLoch Ness monsteror Bigfoot. (See"Bigfoot Hoax: 'Body' Is Rubber Suit.")

In almost all these cases, the monsters have turned out to becoyotessuffering from very severe cases of mange, a painful, potentially fatal skin disease that can cause the animals' hair to fall out and skin to shrivel, among other symptoms. (Related:"'Balding' Bears: Mangy Mystery in Florida.")

For some scientists, this explanation for supposed chupacabras is sufficient."I don't think we need to look any further or to think that there's yet some other explanation for these observations,"saidBarry OConnor, a University of Michigan entomologist who has studiedSarcoptes scabiei,the parasite that causes mange.

Likewise, wildlife-disease specialistKevin Keelhas seen images of an alleged chupacabra corpse and clearly recognized it as a coyote, but said he could imagine how others might not.

"It still looks like a coyote, just a really sorry excuse for a coyote,"said Keel, of the Southeastern Cooperative Wildlife Disease Study at the University of Georgia.

"I wouldn't think it's a chupacabras if I saw it in the woods, but then I've been looking at coyotes and foxes with mange for a while. A layperson, however, might be confused as to its identity."

Chupacabra Evolution

Sarcoptes scabieialso causes the itchy rash known as scabies in humans. In humans and nonhuman animals alike, the mite burrows under the skin of its host and secretes eggs and waste material, which trigger an inflammatory response from the immune system.

In humans, scabies—the allergic reaction to the mites' waste—is usually just a minor annoyance. But mange can be life threatening for canines such as coyotes, which haven't evolved especially effective reactions toSarcoptesinfection.

The University of Michigan's OConnor speculates that the mite passed from humans todomestic dogs, and then on to coyotes,foxes, andwolvesin the wild.

His research suggests that the reason for the dramatically different responses is that humans and other primates have lived with theSarcoptesmite for much of their evolutionary history, while other animals have not.

"Primates are the original hosts"of the mite, OConnor said."Our evolutionary history with the mites help us to keep {scabies} in check so that it doesn't get out of hand like it does when it gets into {other} animals."

In other words, humans have evolved to the point where our immune systems can neutralize the infection before the infection neutralizes us. (Related:"Future Humans: Four Ways We May, or May Not, Evolve.")

The mites too have been evolving, suggested the University of Georgia's Keel. The parasite has had time to optimize its attack on humans so as not to kill us, which would eliminate our usefulness to the mites, he said.

In nonhuman animals,Sarcopteshasn't figured out that balance yet. In coyotes, for example, the reaction can be so severe that it causes hair to fall out and blood vessels to constrict, adding to a general fatigue and even exhaustion.

"Goatsucker"Explained?

Since chupacabras are likely mangy coyotes, this explains why the creatures are often reported attacking livestock.

"Animals with mange are often quite debilitated,"OConnor said."And if they're having a hard time catching their normal prey, they might choose livestock, because it's easier."

As for the blood-sucking part of the chupacabra legend, that may just be make believe or exaggeration.

"I think that's pure myth,"OConnor said.

(Related:"Vampire Moth Discovered—Evolution at Work.")

"Evolution"of a Legend

Loren Coleman, director of theInternational Cryptozoology Museumin Portland, Maine, agreed that many chupacabra sightings—especially the more recent ones—could be explained away as appearances by mangy coyotes, dogs, and coyote-dog hybrids, or coydogs.

"It's certainly a good explanation,"Coleman said,"but it doesn't mean it explains the whole legend."

For example, the more than 200 original chupacabra reports from Puerto Rico in 1995 described a decidedly uncanine creature.

"In 1995 chupacabras was understood to be a bipedal creature that was three feet {about a meter} tall and covered in short gray hair, with spikes out of its back,"Coleman said.

But, as if in a game of telephone, the description of the chupacabra began to change in the late 1990s due to mistakes and mistranslations in news reports, he said.

By 2000 the original chupacabra had been largely replaced by the new, canine one. What was seen as a bipedal creature now stalks livestock on all fours.

"It was actually a big mistake,"Coleman said.

"Because of the whole confusion—with most of the media reporting chupacabras now as dogs or coyotes with mange—you really don't even hear any good reports from Puerto Rico or Brazil anymore like you did in the early days. Those reports have disappeared and the reports of canids with mange have increased."

First Chupacabras: Monkeys or Movie Madness?

So what explains the original chupacabra myth?

One possibility, Coleman said, is that people imagined things after watching or hearing about an alien-horror film that opened in Puerto Rico in the summer of 1995.

"If you look at the date when the movieSpeciesopened in Puerto Rico, you will see that it overlaps with the first explosion of reports there,"he said.

"Then compare the images of {actor}Natasha Henstridge's creature character, Sil {picture}, and you will see the unmistakable spikes out the back that match those of the first images of the chupacabras in 1995."

Another theory is that the Puerto Rico creatures were an escaped troop ofrhesus monkeyson the island, which often stand up on their hind legs.

"There was a population of rhesus monkeys being used in blood experiments in Puerto Rico at the time, and that troop could have got loose,"Coleman said.

"It could be something that simple, or it could be something much more interesting, because we know thatnew animals are being discovered all the time."

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Halloween: For Kids Only!

•Halloween Quiz Game

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forNational Geographic News

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New Amazon Species:"Bluetooth" Tarantula, Electric Fish

The poison dart frogRanitomeya amazonicais one of more than 1,200 new species of plants and vertebrates discovered in the Amazonrain forestbetween 1999 and 2009, the international conservation groupWWFannounced Tuesday in anew reporthighlighting the region's biodiversity.

At least 17 percent of the Amazon has been cleared to make room for cattle or crops that are grown for animal feed andbiofuels, WWF says. The wildlife group is calling for greater species protection in the face of increasing development pressure. (Related:"Ethanol Production Could Be Eco-Disaster, Brazil's Critics Say.")

R. amazonica,which sports a burst of"flame"on its head and water-patterned legs, was discovered in 1999 in moist lowland forests. The new species' primary threats include land clearing and collection for the wildlife trade, WWF reports. (See"Farming the Amazon.")

—John Roach

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New Snub-Nosed Monkey Discovered, Eaten

A new monkey species inMyanmaris so snub-nosed that rainfall is said to makes it sneeze—but that's apparently the least of problems.

The only scientifically observed specimen (pictured above) had been killed by local hunters the time researchers found it—and was eaten soon after. But local demand for monkey meat is only one reason the new species is already considered endangered.

(Also see"'Extinct' Bird Seen, Eaten.")

Scientists first learned of"Snubby"—as they nicknamed the species—from hunters in the remote, mountainous Kachin state (map) in early 2010, according to the U.K.-based conservation groupFlora& Fauna International(FFI), which announced the discovery Wednesday.

The hunters told the team ofR. strykeri's fleshy lips, upturned nose, and odd respiratory issue: Rain falling into the monkeys' noses possibly causes the animals to sneeze, so they often spend soggy days with their heads tucked between their knees, the hunters said.

"We were surveying during the rainy season, and we were asking, 'Does it make sense to survey these monkeys in the rainy season?'"said Frank Momberg, FFI's Asia-Pacific development director. The hunters said,"'Of course! It's much easier to find them'"due to the sound, he added.

"Hunters hunt them more often in the rainy season, because they are much easier to locate—normally they're pretty quiet."

Eventually other members of the team did find live snub-nosed monkeys, but the creatures escaped before pictures could be taken, Momberg said. (FFI has, though, released aphoto composite of the deadR. strykeri's face on the torso of a live monkey of a different species {link to BBC News}.)

Other snub-nosed monkey species are known fromChinaandVietnam, butR. strykeriis the first known species in Myanmar (Burma). Ranging across about a hundred square miles (270 square kilometers), the new species is also distinguished by its wispy white beard and ear tufts as well as its relatively long tail, according to FFI.

(Related:"Ultrarare Shark Found, Eaten.")

New Snub-Nosed Monkey Already Endangered

Generally preferring bear meat, the local hunters don't usually target the snub-nosed monkey, Momberg said. But"when a hunter comes across a monkey and there's nothing more delicious, he will shoot it."

(Related:"Lemurs Hunted, Eaten Amid Civil Unrest, Group Says.")

The bush-meat trade is just one of the pressures facingR. strykeri.

Chinese logging companies, for example, are encroaching on the new snub-nosed monkey's habitat, FFI says. And with logging comes more than habitat destruction.

As trees are extracted, so are the roots that anchor soil to steep mountains, leading to increased landslide risks. And as logging camps proliferate, so do guns, traps, and demand for bush meat.

Based on talks with the Lisu hunters, scientists estimate that only about 300 of these monkeys remain—few enough to qualifyR. strykerifor"critically endangered"status on the International Union for Conservation of Nature'sRed List of Threatened Species, FFI says.

But if the new species' noisy sneeze gives them away to hunters—and presumably other predators—why didR. strykerievolve its odd face? To find out, Momberg said,"we would need to habituate a group of these monkeys {to humans} and then observe them in the wild. That would take at least a year."

Thestudy of the new species of snub-nosed monkeyappears in the October issue of theAmerican Journal of Primatology.

forNational Geographic News

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Ocean Pictures: Contest Winners Show Sea Life in Peril

A diver frees one of 17sea turtlesdrowned by a discarded fishing net off the Brazilian coast in the winning shot ofMarine Photobank's 2010Ocean in FocusConservation Photo Contest.

Marine Photobank's mission is to advanceoceanconservation by providing free, high-quality marine pictures to media and noncommercial outlets. For this photo contest, Marine Photobank was looking for powerful images that"illuminate the many threats facing our ocean."(The National Geographic Society, which owns National Geographic News, donated prizes for the contest winners.)

"Turtles are in serious trouble,"commented marine ecologist andNational Geographic explorer-in-residence Sylvia Earle."Their numbers are even more depressed than {other} ocean wildlife. Maybe 5 percent of some species remain."(Take anocean-issues quiz.)

"The good news is the ocean is large and resilient. The bad news is that there's a limit to resilience,"Earle added."We see 90 percent of many of the big fish gone, 40 percent of the plankton gone, half the coral reefs gone or in a state of serious degradation, {and now} hundreds of dead zones. All this is serious, bad news.

"The good news is that there's still plenty of reason for hope. The ocean is not dead. We still have 10 percent of many of the species that are in sharp decline. ... We still have a chance, but we have to hurry."

—Sean Markey

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Gulf Manta Rays Affected by Oil Spill?

SPECIAL SERIES | DEEP IMPACT
Deciphering the unseen, underwater effects of the Gulf oil spill.

The Gulf of Mexico's mysterious manta rays could face invisible and long-lasting threats from theBP oil spill, experts say.

In the weeks after the April 20 disaster, aerial photos and reports from boaters placed at least some mantas in the thick of the surface spill. But it's the oil's unseen impacts, deep underwater, may be even more troubling, especially as preliminary studies suggestthe spill isn't going away.

(Related:"Whale Sharks Killed, Displaced by Gulf Oil?")

Mantas are filter feeders that reach huge sizes in part by taking in seawater and ejecting it through their gills, retaining plankton or other tiny creatures, according to Rachel Graham, lead shark scientist with theWildlife Conservation Society's Ocean Giants Program.

"Gill filaments, which enable mantas to extract oxygen from the water, are very vulnerable to any kind of toxin or oil coverage,"Graham said."If they are covered, they will likely die."

What's more, there's so little known about Gulf mantas that scientists aren't sure if the 20-foot-wide (6-meter-wide)fishbelong to one of two known manta species—or if the Gulf mantas are their own species altogether.

Oil and Mantas Don't Mix

After burning and sinking last April, the damagedDeepwater Horizonwellhead released nearly five million barrels of oil into the northernGulf of Mexico (map). Each barrel equals 42 gallons, or 159 liters, of oil.

The oil could affect the"ways mantas live their day-to-day lives for years,"said marine biologist Andrea Marshall of theMozambique-basedFoundation for the Protection of Marine Megafauna."It won't clear up over a few months."

For instance,oil—and dispersants used to break it up—might hurt the rays' plankton food sources, as well as the"cleaning stations"where mantas go to have their parasites eaten by smaller fish.

Oil could also disrupt mantas' migrations throughout the Gulf, or even their reproduction—no one knows where the animals give birth, according to Mexican marine biologist Silvia Hinojosa Alvarez of theMexican Caribbean Manta Project.

"The main problem is that we know {very little} about their biology,"Alvarez said."So how can we predict with accuracy what will happen?"

(Related picture:"First Giant Manta Ray Born in Captivity Dies.")

Complicating matters is the Gulf's role as a manta hot spot.

Fortunately, well-known Gulf manta haunts such asFlower Garden Banks National Marine Sanctuarywere not in the direct path of the oil, said the Wildlife Conservation Society's Graham.

However,"we have this huge threat of a deepwater oil spill, but {we} don't know any population sizes, and we have no baseline,"she added."So it's very difficult to estimate the impact of something like this."

(See relatedpictures:"Giant Rays' 'Feeding Frenzy' Spots Protected.")

In addition, scientists believe that mantas are likely found throughout the Gulf."So while those at the Flower Gardens may not be directly impacted, they may also move into areas affected by the spill,"said Tim Clark, a marine ecologist with the National Park of American Samoa.

Gulf Mantas: Hybrids or Unique Species?

In 2008 the megafauna foundation's Marshalldiscovered that the manta ray is actually two separate species, and her work left the door open for the existence of a third species.

According to Marshall's work, the smaller, more familiar manta species,Mantaalfredi, tends to stay near coasts as a year-round coral reef resident with a small home range.

The larger species, Manta birostriscan top 4,400 pounds (2,000 kilograms) and tends to wander widely on deep-ocean migrations through a variety of marine habitats.

Scientists in the Gulf have been studying the region's mantas—informally called Yucatán mantas—to see where thesestingraycousins fit on the family tree.

The Wildlife Conservation Society's Graham has studied Gulf mantas closely and conductedacoustic tagging researchat Flower Garden. She said Gulf mantas share physical and behavioral elements of both confirmed species, including varied sizes, mixed markings, and colors. Also, the Gulf mantas' travel habits lie somewhere between the two extremes.

"It's almost like they are a hybrid,"Graham said."Interestingly, at Flower Garden Banks, {Gulf mantas} tend to be really small, while in the southern Gulf, the ones I recently tagged are really big,birostris-sized animals.

(See the satellite tracking online.)

“What I’ve seen from tags is that they seem to be spending a fair amount of time in the southern Gulf aggregation area but occasionally move over 56 miles {90 kilometers} before returning to the aggregation site. Why? {That’s} another mystery to uncover.”

After diving with Gulf mantas recently, Marshall, who first indentified the two known manta species, said she thinks that they may represent a third species but might also be hybrids or evenM. birostriswith regional color variations.

At this stage there is"tempting evidence"for each of these hypotheses, she said.

Gulf Manta Gene Study Underway

The Mexican manta project's Alvarez and colleagues are also unsure what to make of the Gulf animals.

"When we saw all the differences between them, {including} color patterns, presence or absence of {tail} spines, behavior, habitat, {and} skin, we could not classify our Yucatán mantas"as either known manta species, Alvarez said.

"Our Yucatán mantas shared morphological {structural} characteristics with {each of} the two mantas previously {described} by Dr. Marshall."

(Read about manta rays inNational Geographicmagazine.)

American Samoa's Clark did some early genetic work on manta species nearly a decade ago and suspected that the animals in the Gulf could be a new species.

"The Gulf mantas are genetically distinct,"he said."IfM. alfrediandM. birostrisare {separate} species—which Andrea {Marshall's} morphological work shows is true—then there is strong genetic support for a third species in the Gulf of Mexico."

Alvarez and colleagues have also begun a genetic study of the Gulf species, though there are no results yet, she said.

"The main thing, and what is important, is that scientific knowledge of this species is poor and needs to be supported so {we} can continue research with this species.

"We are working in a marine protected area, and as scientists {we} need to know what kind of mantas we have in the area."(Seepictures of U.S. marine protected areas.)

Manta Research May Boost Protection

Classifying the new manta species could also aid efforts to protect the fish by revealing more about how they use the Gulf and its resources, scientists say.

To this end, the Wildlife Conservation Society's Graham is working with the National Marine Sanctuary's Emma Hickerson on programs such as the Flower Garden Banks'Manta Catalog.

The site has solicited photos from divers, boaters, scientists, and others who have spotted animals on the site—and already identified more than 70 individual Gulf mantas.

"One of the things that we've found in the photo catalog—which is also supported by the acoustic tag work—is that a lot of mantas certainly ... {stick} to these coral-covered salt domes and seamounts on the edge of the continental shelf,"Graham said.

(Relatedpictures:"Undersea Mountain Photos: Brittlestar Swarm, More Found.")

"Are these mantas staying in this particular area for their entire lifetime, or are they moving away, possibly to the southern Gulf and then returning to the northern Gulf banks?”

Solving such mysteries will shed light on where and how the animals live and how best to protect them.

Graham believes that's an obvious goal for anyone who has ever encountered the graceful giants close-up.

"A manta will interact with you,"she said."They are unbelievably smart animals—they have the largest brain-size-per-weight ratio of all the sharks and rays."(Seestingray pictures.)

"When you are swimming alongside one and look into its eyes, you can see that they are very cognizant."

forNational Geographic News

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Fuzzy Critters'Crystallized Pee Changes Climate Record?

A guinea-pig-like mammal's prehistoric urine may be one of the best tools for understandingclimatechange in arid regions, scientists announced Tuesday. Already, analysis of crystallized rock hyrax pee appears to contradict some results of current climate models.

Looking like a rodent but more closely related to elephants and manatees, the roughly rabbit-size rock hyrax has, for tens of thousands of years, lived in colonies of up to about 50 individuals in sub-SaharanAfricaand the Middle East (regional map).

The animals use communal"toilets"called middens, where rock hyrax waste slowly crystallizes into a layered, amber-esque, smelly substance.

Like amber, the middens can contain valuable evidence—in this case, traces of how much grass the animals were eating and isotopes indicating how dry that grass was. (Related:"Spider's Blood Found in Amber May Hold Prehistoric Secrets.")

As a result, some middens are essentially unbroken, 28,000-year-old records of changes in regional vegetation, said study leaderBrian Chaseof the Institute of Science and Evolution at the University of Montpellier 2 in France.

The ancient waste is especially prized because evidence of ancient climate change is hard to come by in arid regions—including southern Africa, where the team's recent research took place.

Clues to prehistoric climate often come from sediment layers in lakes or peat bogs, noted team memberMike Meadows. But in dry regions,"we don't have many lakes, we don't have many boggy areas,"added Meadlows, a physical geographer at the University of Cape Town in South Africa.

(Also see"Urine Vision? How Rodents Communicate With UV Light.")

Ancient Urine Suggests Old Climate Model All Wet?

The hyrax pee is important for understanding the climate of not just southern Africa but perhaps the world, the study team says.

For example, current climate models suggest that, as the Northern Hemisphere became drier about 5,500 years ago, the Southern Hemisphere got wetter. But traces in the hyrax-urine samples suggest that the southern part of Africa also dried out during this period, according to apaper by the team published in the July 2010 issue ofQuaternary Research.

"If the model can't simulate the past. ... how much trust do we have in its ability to predict the future?"study leader Chase said.

To help answer that question, Chase, also an accomplished rock climber, has been collecting hyrax urine since 2006 and is in the middle of a five-year project to collect more—not an easy process. The urine-rich middens, which need to be chipped off with power tools, are in caves and under rock ledges.

And then there's the smell:"It's not too unpleasant, but it's not all that nice,"the University of Cape Town's Meadows said."It does smell like pee. ... You kind of get used to it."

More:"Giant Bird Poop Provides Glimpse of Pre-Human New Zealand Landscape">>

forNational Geographic News

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Giant Pterosaurs Could Fly 10,000 Miles Nonstop

Largepterosaursmay have been the frequent-flier champions of the dinosaur age, capable of soaring up to 10,000 miles (16,000 kilometers) at a stretch, scientists say (explore aprehistoric time line).

Currently paleontologists know of four species of giant pterosaur, some of which were as tall asgiraffesand had wingspans of more than 30 feet (10 meters).

The huge animals likely relied on updrafts of warm air and wind currents to achieve their record distances, said study co-author Michael Habib, a paleontologist atChatham Universityin Pittsburgh.

"They probably only flapped for a few minutes at a time ... and then their muscles had to recover,"he said."In between, they're going to use unpowered flight"and glide. (Related:"Toothy Texas Pterosaur Discovered; Soared Over Dallas.")

Even so, the winged reptiles would have needed to burn about 160 pounds (72 kilograms) worth of fat reserves per trip, Habib said.

"They're basically burning off the equivalent of a good-size human on each trip."

Bulky Pterosaurs Launched From All Fours

The new flight distance estimate for pterosaurs is based on the latest models of the ancient animals' wingspans, wing shapes, body masses, and fat capacities.

"The tricky part was deciding how much fuel they can carry,"Habib said. For example,"migrating birds lose about 50 percent of their body weight during long migrations."

But the needs of pterosaurs may have been different, because their anatomy suggests they flew differently than modern-day birds. (Take ananimal-migrations quiz.)

For instance, scientists had previouslyused the largest living bird, the wandering albatross, to model pterosaur flight. But"we don't expect {pterosaurs} to have the same flapping frequency as an albatross, nor do we expect that they soared the same way as an albatross,"Habib said.

The 10,000-mile flight estimate may even be a little conservative, said Habib, who presented his work this week at the annualSociety for Vertebrate Paleontologymeeting in Pittsburgh.

"The lowest range estimates were about 5,000 miles (8,000 kilometers), while the highest were around 20,000 miles (32,000 kilometers),"he said."In the middle range, where all the numbers lined up and I had high confidence, you get about 10,000 miles."

The findings would seem to contradict past studies that suggested large pterosaurs had problems just getting off the ground due to their massive sizes.

For example,Quetzalcoatlus northropi,a giant pterosaur that lived in what is now Texas 70 million years ago, is thought to be the largest flying creature that ever lived, weighing more than 400 pounds (200 kilograms). (See apicture of whatQuetzalcoatlusmight have looked like.)

Some scientists speculate this hefty species couldn't take off from the ground as birds do, but had to drop from trees or cliffs to take to the skies.

Instead, Habib and colleagues think that—like some modern bats—large pterosaurs may have used all four limbs to launch themselves into the airbefore flapping their wings.

"I'm pretty confident that pterosaurs didn't take off anything like a bird,"Habib said.

Giant Pterosaurs Were Global"Superspecies"?

Overall, the new research"makes all of us think more about how {pterosaurs} might have functioned,"saidAlexander Kellner, a pterosaur expert at Brazil's National Museum in Rio de Janeiro. But Kellner has some doubts about the results.

That's because there are several things scientists still don't know about pterosaur body structure that could affect flight distance calculations, he said. One particularly well-preserved Chinese pterosaur fossil, for example, haswing membranes made up of multiple layers of structural fibers unlike anything found in a living animal.

"We are not sure what the composition of those {fibers} is, but we can say that they have a tremendous influence in the flight of those creatures,"Kellner said in an email.

If Habib's calculations are correct, the results raise the possibility that large pterosaurs could crisscross entire continents or even fly between continents on a fairly regular basis. Unlike most species, which tend to be native to specific geographic regions, the dino-era fliers may have been well-traveled"superspecies"that called the entire globe their home.

"If {giant pterosaurs} could fly very far, that might change how scientists think about their distribution,"Habib said.

forNational Geographic News

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